NCERT Class 10 Mathematics for Blind Students made Screen Readable by Professor T K Bansal.

Consider the following folk puzzle*.

(* This is modified form of a puzzle given in ‘Numeracy Counts!’ by A. Rampal, and others.)

A trader was moving along a road selling eggs. An idler, who did not have much work to do, started to get the trader into a wordy duel. This grew into a fight; he pulled the basket with eggs and dashed it to the floor. The eggs broke. The trader requested the Panchayat to ask the idler to pay for the broken eggs. The Panchayat asked the trader how many eggs were broken. He gave the following response:

If counted in pairs, one will remain.
If counted in threes, two will remain;
If counted in fours, three will remain.
If counted in fives, four will remain;
If counted in sixes, five will remain;
If counted in sevens, nothing will remain;
My basket cannot accommodate more than 150 eggs.

So, how many eggs were there?

Let us try and solve the puzzle.

Let the number of eggs be α. Then working backwards, we see that α ≤ 150:

If counted in sevens, nothing will remain, which translates to α = 7p + 0, for some natural number p.

If counted in sixes, α = 6q + 5, for some natural number q.

If counted in fives, four will remain. It translates to α = 5 w + 4, for some natural number w.

If counted in fours, three will remain. It translates to α = 4s + 3, for some natural number s.

If counted in threes, two will remain. It translates to α = 3t + 2, for some natural number t.

If counted in pairs, one will remain. It translates to α = 2 u + 1, for some natural number u.

That is, in each case, we have α and a positive integer β (in our example, β takes values 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2, respectively) which divides α and leaves a remainder r (in our case, r is 0, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively), that is smaller than β. The moment we write down such equations we are using Euclid’s division lemma, which is given in Theorem 1.1.

Getting back to our puzzle, do we have any idea how we will solve it? Yes! We must look for the multiples of 7 which satisfy all the conditions. By trial and error (using the concept of LCM), we will find he had 119 eggs.

In order to get a feel for what Euclid’s division lemma is, Let us consider the following pairs of integers:

17, 6;
5, 12;
20, 4

Like we did in the example, we can write the following relations for each such pair:

17 = 6 × 2 + 5 (6 goes into 17 twice and leaves a remainder 5)
5 = 12 × 0 + 5 (This relation holds since 12 is larger than 5)
20 = 4 × 5 + 0 (Here 4 goes into 20 five-times and leaves no remainder)

That is, for each pair of positive integers, α and β, we have found whole numbers q and r, satisfying the relation:

α = β × q + r, where, 0 ≤ r < β

Note that both, q and/or r can also be zero.

Why don’t you now try finding integers q and r for the following pairs of positive integers α and β?

(i) 10, 3;
(ii) 4, 19;
(iii) 81, 3

Did you notice that q and r are unique? These are the only integers satisfying the conditions α = β × q + r, where 0 ≤ r < β...

You may have also realised that this is nothing but a restatement of the long division process, you have been doing all these years, and that the integers q and r are called the quotient and the remainder, respectively.

A formal statement of this result is as follows:

Theorem 1.1 (Euclid’s Division Lemma):

Given positive integers α and β, there exist unique integers q and r satisfying α = β×q + r, 0 ≤ r < β.

This result was known for a long time but was first recorded in Book VII of Euclid’s Elements. Euclid’s division algorithm is based on this lemma.

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Start of Blue Box

[

An algorithm is a series of well-defined steps which gives a procedure for solving a type of problem.

The word algorithm comes from the name of the 9th century Persian mathematician al-Khwarizmi. In fact, even the word ‘algebra’ is derived from a book, he wrote, called Hisab al-jabr w’al-muqabala.

A lemma is a proven statement used for proving another statement.]

End of Blue Box

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Euclid’s division algorithm is a technique to compute the Highest Common Factor (HCF) of two given positive integers. Recall that the HCF of two positive integers α and β is the largest positive integer d that divides both α and β.

Let us see how the algorithm works, through an example first.

Suppose we need to find the HCF of the integers 455 and 42. We start with the larger integer, that is, 455. Then we use Euclid’s lemma to get

455 = 42 × 10 + 35

> Now consider the divisor 42 and the remainder 35, and apply the division lemma to get
42 = 35 × 1 + 7

 

Now consider the divisor 35 and the remainder 7, and apply the division lemma to get
35 = 7 × 5 + 0

Notice that the remainder has become zero, and we cannot proceed any further. We claim that the HCF of 455 and 42 is the divisor at this stage, i.e., 7. You can easily verify this by listing all the factors of 455 and 42. Why does this method work?

It works because of the following result.

So, let us state Euclid’s division algorithm clearly.

To obtain the HCF of two positive integers, say c and d, with c > d, follow the steps below:

Step 1: Apply Euclid’s division lemma, to c and d. So, we find whole numbers, q, and r such that
c = d × q + r, 0 ≤ r < d.

Step 2: If r = 0, d is the HCF of c and d. If r ≠ 0, apply the division lemma to d and r.

Step 3: Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will be the required HCF.

This algorithm works because HCF (c, d) = HCF (d, r) where the symbol HCF (c, d) denotes the HCF of c and d, etc.

Example 1

Use Euclid’s algorithm to find the HCF of 4,052 and 12,576.

Solution:

Step 1: Since 12,576 > 4,052, we apply the division lemma to 12,576 and 4,052, to get
12,576 = 4,052 × 3 + 420

Step 2 : Since the remainder 420 ≠ 0, we apply the division lemma to 4,052 and 420, to get
4,052 = 420 × 9 + 272

Step 3 : We consider the new divisor 420 and the new remainder 272, and apply the division lemma to get
420 = 272 × 1 + 148

We consider the new divisor 272 and the new remainder 148, and apply the division lemma to get
272 = 148 × 1 + 124

We consider the new divisor 148 and the new remainder 124, and apply the division lemma to get
148 = 124 × 1 + 24

We consider the new divisor 124 and the new remainder 24, and apply the division lemma to get
124 = 24 × 5 + 4

We consider the new divisor 24 and the new remainder 4, and apply the division lemma to get
24 = 4 × 6 + 0

The remainder has now become zero, so our procedure stops. Since the divisor at this stage is 4, the HCF of 12,576 and 4,052 is 4.

Notice that 4 = HCF (24, 4) = HCF (124, 24) = HCF (148, 124) = HCF (272, 148) = HCF (420, 272) = HCF (4052, 420) = HCF (12576, 4052).

Euclid’s division algorithm is not only useful for calculating the HCF of very large numbers, but also because it is one of the earliest examples of an algorithm that a computer had been programmed to carry out.

Remarks:

1. Euclid’s division lemma and algorithm are so closely interlinked that people often call former as the division algorithm also.

2. Although Euclid’s Division Algorithm is stated for only positive integers, it can be extended for all integers except zero, i.e., β ≠ 0. However, we shall not discuss this aspect here.

Euclid’s division lemma/algorithm has several applications related to finding properties of numbers. We give some examples of these applications below:

Example 2

Show that every positive even integer is of the form 2q, and that every positive odd integer is of the form 2q + 1, where q is some positive integer.

Solution:

Let α be any positive integer and β = 2. Then, by Euclid’s algorithm, α = 2q + r, for some integer q ≥ 0, and r = 0 or r = 1, because 0 ≤ r < 2
So, a = 2q or 2q + 1.

If α is of the form 2q, then α is an even integer.

Also, a positive integer can be either even or odd. Therefore, any positive odd integer is of the form 2q + 1.

Example 3

Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 or 4q + 3, where q is some integer.

Solution:

Let us start with taking α, where α is a positive odd integer. We apply the division algorithm with α, and β = 4.

Since 0 ≤ r < 4, the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2 and 3.

That is, α can be 4q, or 4q + 1, or 4q + 2, or 4q + 3, where q is the quotient. However, since α is odd, α cannot be 4q or 4q + 2 (since they are both divisible by 2).

Therefore, any odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 or 4q + 3.

Example 4

A sweet seller has 420 kaju barfies and 130 baadaam barfies. She wants to stack them in such a way that each stack has the same number, and they take up the least area of the tray. What is the number of that can be placed in each stack for this purpose?

Solution:

This can be done by trial and error. But to do it systematically, we find HCF (420, 130). Then this number will give the maximum number of barfies in each stack and the number of stacks will then be the least. The area of the tray that is used up will be the least.

Now, let us use Euclid’s algorithm to find their HCF. We have:

420 = 130 × 3 + 30
130 = 30 × 4 + 10
30 = 10 × 3 + 0

So, the HCF of 420 and 130 is 10.

Therefore, the sweet seller can make stacks of 10 for both kinds of barfies.

EXERCISE 1.1

Q1. Use Euclid’s division algorithm to find the HCF of:
(i) 135 and 225
(ii) 196 and 38220
(iii) 867 and 255

A1.
(i) 45
(ii) 196
(iii) 51

Q2. Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 6q + 1, or 6q + 3, or 6q + 5, where q is some integer.

A2. An integer can be of the form 6q, 6q + 1, 6q + 2, 6q + 3, 6q + 4 or 6q + 5.

Q3. An army contingent of 616 members is to march behind an army band of 32 members in a parade. The two groups are to march in the same number of columns. What is the maximum number of columns in which they can march?

A3. 8 columns

Q4. Use Euclid’s division lemma to show that the square of any positive integer is either of the form 3m or 3m + 1 for some integer m.
[Hint: Let x be any positive integer then it is of the form 3q, 3q + 1 or 3q + 2. Now square each of these and show that they can be rewritten in the form 3m or 3m + 1.]

A4. An integer can be of the form 3q, 3q + 1 or 3q + 2. Square all of these integers.

Q5. Use Euclid’s division lemma to show that the cube of any positive integer is of the form 9m, 9m + 1 or 9m + 8.

A5. An integer can be of the form 9q, 9q + 1, 9q + 2, 9q + 3, . . ., or 9q + 8.